Marketing Managemnt Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marketing Managemnt - Assignment Example The focus in this paper is on marketing management that has gained increasing importance in recent years owing to the notion of globalization and internationalization which has given way to the boundary-less movement of goods and services. Marketing for products that are sold across various cultures, languages, tastes, demographics and external conditions is no longer a simplistic job- it requires adequate and periodic management so that the product achieves a strategic fit with the diverse external environment. No longer can marketers focus their efforts on just the four P’s (product, price, promotion, place)- they have come to realize the blooming significance of 4C’s; Consumer (as opposed to Product), Cost (as opposed to Price), Convenience ( as opposed to Place) and Communications ( as opposed to Promotion). Thus, the above indicates the growing importance of marketing management which enables managers and executives to deal with strategic marketing challenges that the organizations face every day. An important task for marketing managers is the creation of value for consumers. The challenge is thus, how to offer that value? The idea of customer relationship management (which is a part of marketing management) stems from the notion of value creation. At the heart of successful marketing efforts is the ability of the company to provide a product that satisfies the needs of customers. Towards this end it is important to define what a need is- a need is defined as a felt deprivation for something. So, for instance, to feel thirsty is a need that has to be satisfied. A want refers to the means by which that need is satisfied. Thus, how the thirst is quenched (through water, drink, and juice) would become a want. Marketers must target customer needs and satisfy wants. On the contrary, however, it is observed today that marketers are creating needs rather than satisfying them. To this end, the importance of product comes into play. The product is th e crux of marketing- Marketing is grounded in â€Å"consumers† and consumers demand products to satisfy their needs. The product is the starting point for most marketing efforts. It is interesting to note that a product consists of five layers although it may appear as a single, holistic object to us. The central part of the product is referred to as the â€Å"core†. It is this core that forms the basis for the other layers (including basic, expected, augmented and potential product). An example would be of a Nikon camera. Its core benefit would be to allow the user to take photographs and make videos with ease. The actual product will comprise of the brand name (Nikon), high resolution, carrying case etc. The augmented product would be warranty, demonstration and repair etc. Core benefits are often represented as order qualifiers or the bare minimum necessary for products to stay in the market (Homburg et al., 2005). This would simply mean the delivery for what is pro mised. A product or a brand is s promise, and when it is fulfilled in the quantity and quality desired by consumers the phenomenon is termed as core benefits or order qualifiers. For instance, the basic attribute of a bank is to offer accurate maintenance of consumer accounts. Bottled/mineral water provides consumer with a basic minimum level of ingredients or required calorie intake. Conceptual studies from research have revealed that core benefits are a subset of the larger group â€Å"customer benefits† which encompasses not only core benefits but also add-on benefits as discussed earlier. These customer benefits are viewed as the constructive values of customer relationship (Homburg et al., 2005). The core of a product is not tangible- it takes the form of a benefit or an advantage that a consumer may have from using it (Homburg et al., 2005). Thus, the core of a product is in abstract form and cannot be touched. Alternately, core defines the need that marketers

Big Drive Auto Scenario Essay Example for Free

Big Drive Auto Scenario Essay It is the dream of every organization to enter a new market and in the process realize its dreams. However, this dream becomes very difficult to achieve due to a number of factors among them entry barriers put in place by those companies that are already operating in those countries. According to Arthur, S. Sheffrin, M. , (2003), some common non-pricing barriers likely to affect a firm wishing to enter a new market are high advertising costs, government policies, customer loyalty, and cost advantage independent of scale and distributor agreements. It would therefore be recommendable for such a firm to enter into negotiations with the government of the country where it wants to venture and the other firms that are operating in the country. This way, the new company will be able to cut on the cost of production. The reason is that in the negotiations, the companies will be able to discuss and have a common pricing index that should apply to the new company. Even though the other old company will not pay any new prices, the new company will have its prices reduced substantially. This helps the new company to reduce on the cost of production thereby having more disposable income. It can use this disposable income to invest on new technology or to maximize on its production. (Arthur, S. Sheffrin, M. , 2003) Another recommendation would be for the new company to first form a joint venture with the other operating company in the new company. This way, the new company will be able to escape or rather to get over all the other non-pricing barriers such high advertising costs, customer loyalty and distribution agreement. Under the umbrella of the already operating company, the new company now in the joint venture will be able to penetrate the market and only after it has succeeded in establishing the market should it break and be on its own. Due to these barriers, we can present sales at the new company in the tables below taking a span of ten years. From the tables, it is clear that the business is moving all right up to the year 2002 when it suddenly goes down. This defines the time when the new company decides to break-off from the joint venture and be on its own. The business goes down as they are now running independently but it slowly regains momentum because they are familiar with the market. (Arthur, S. Sheffrin, M. , 2003)

Organizational behaviour theories

Organizational behaviour theories 1.0 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this essay is to discuss the statement â€Å"organizational behaviour theories and concepts are only useful for managers† with real world examples supporting the discussion. Organizations are not buildings or pieces of machinery. Organizations are, indeed, people who interact to accomplish shared objectives. The study of organizational behaviour (OB) and its affiliated subjects helps us understand what people think, feel and do in organizational settings. For managers and, realistically, all employees, this knowledge helps predict, understand and control organizational events. Organizational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organisations effectiveness (Robbins, Millett, Marsh, 2004). Though there is still considerable debate as to the components or topics of the area of OB, there appears to be general accord that OB includes the core topics of motivation, leader behaviour and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and perception, emotions, change processes, conflicts, work design work stress. To sum up OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how that behaviour affects the performance of the organization. To achieve the purpose the essence of this essay strives to analyze the controversial and complex theories and concepts of organisational behaviour to discuss those theories and concepts useful for everyone or only managers of an organisation. 2.0 Role of the Manager 2.1. Who is a Manager? A manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. The changing nature of organizations and work has altered the role of managers. 2.2. What do Managers Do Describing what managers do isnt an easy or simple task! Just as no two organizations are alike, no two managers jobs are alike. A managers job can be described from various perspectives: functions, roles, essential skills, systems, and contingencies. Each approach provides a different perspective on the managers job. Management is the process of coordinating work activities so theyre completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. Effectiveness is concerned with completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things done and effectiveness is concerned with the ends. The process of management refers to the idea that management consists of a set of ongoing decisions and actions in which managers engage as they plan, organize, lead, and control. Planning involves defining an organizations goals and establishing strategies and plans to achieve those goals. Organizing includes designing a structure to carry out the plans. Leading involves motivating subordinates, influencing individuals or teams, communicating effectively, and dealing with employee behaviour issues. Finally, controlling includes monitoring, comparing, and correcting the organizations performance. Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different roles or behaviours. He classified them into three sets. One set is concerned with interpersonal relationships (figurehead, leader, liaison). The second set is related to the transfer of information (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson). The third set deals with decision making (entre-preneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator). Robert Katz identified three skills managers need: technical, human, and conceptual. He showed that the relative importance of these skills varied according to the management level within the organization. The systems perspective can be used to describe what a manager does because organizations are open systems with interrelated and interdependent parts. Within this system, managers coordinate the various work activities so that the organization can meet its goals. The reality of work is that manager will either manage or be managed, and there are rewards and challenges in being a manager. 3.0 Organisational behaviour theories and concepts There are several crucial reasons why companies should utilize the concepts and theories of OB, as well as understand the key terms that are associated with organizational behaviour. One of the most important and broad-based challenges facing organizations today is adapting to diverse work environments. Organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, and ethnicity. For example, several key terms that must also be understood organizational culture, diversity, communication, organizational effectiveness and efficiency, organizational learning. 3.1. Attitudes Attitudes are evaluative statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how an individual feels about something. When a person says, I like my job, he or she is expressing an attitude about work. The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance:Cognitive dissonance theory sought to explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Cognitive dissonance is any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. The theory argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will try to reduce the dissonance and, thus, the discomfort. In other words, individuals seek stability with a minimum of dissonance. Self-Perception Theory: People decide on their own attitudes and feelings from watching themselves behave in various situations. (Straker, c Syque 2002-2009) Usefulness of Attitudes Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Effective managers need to understand behaviours and attitudes of employees. Therefore knowing above theories Managers can pressure to reduce the dissonance when employees recognize that the dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable. The pressure is also decreased if rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. So the manager may point to external forces such as competitors, customers, or other factors when explaining the need to perform some work activity about which workers may have some dissonance. Or the manager can provide rewards that workers desire in order to decrease their attempts to get rid of the dissonance. Another implication for managers is that there is relatively strong proof that committed and satisfied employees have low rates of turnover and absenteeism. Knowing that managers would like to keep resignations and absences down, mostly among their most productive employees. Managers can do those things by generating positive job attitudes. Measuring employee satisfaction through attitude surveys can alert managers to any significant changes. The manager who knows about the above theories can reduce absenteeism and turnover by using those theories and concepts. Employees who know attitude theories and concepts try to reduce dissonance and decide on their attitudes and feelings which lead them to the successful job performance. Then furthermore successful job performance should lead to feelings of accomplishment, increased pay, promotions, and other rewards, all desirable outcomes that then lead to job satisfaction of employees. 3.2. Personality The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, measurable traits a person exhibits. There are dozens of personality traits could use; for instance, aggressive, shy, ambitious, loyal, and lazy. The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions: The big-five personality traits are; Extraversion: The degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive. Agreeableness: The degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. Conscientiousness: The degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented. Emotional stability: The degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). Openness to experience: The degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual. Personality-Job Fit Theory (Holland): Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. The six basic personality types of work environments are; Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Usefulness of Personality Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. For managers the major value in understanding personality differences probably lies in employee selection. Managers are likely to have higher performing and more satisfied employees if consideration is given to matching personalities with jobs. The best-documented personality job fit theory has been developed by psychologist John Holland. His theory states that an employees satisfaction with his or her job, as well as his or her likelihood of leaving that job, depends on the degree to which the individuals personality matches the occupational environment. Furthermore it illustrates satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are compatible. Therefore its valuable for managers to know about personality theories and concepts. Also being a successful manager and accomplishing goals means working well together with others both inside and outside the organization. In order to work effectively together, managers need to understand each other. This understanding comes, at least in part, from recognizing the ways in which people differ from each other that is, from an appreciation of personality traits. In addition, there are other benefits to a managers understanding of personality. By recognizing that people approach problem solving, decision making, and job interactions differently, a manager can better understand why, for instance, an employee is uncomfortable with making quick decisions or why another employee insists on gathering as much information as possible before addressing a problem. Or, for instance, managers can expect that individuals with an external locus of control may be less satisfied with their jobs than internals and also that they may be less willing to accept responsibility for their actions. People who choose to work in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied. For that reason knowing personality theories and concepts person can select a job that fit for him or her. For example, Artistic persons are more likely to be successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has an Artistic environment, like choosing to be a dance teacher in a dancing school an environment dominated by Artistic type people where creative abilities and expression are highly valued. Moreover knowing those theories help employees to work with their office mates/staff with an understanding. 3.3. Learning Learning occurs all the time as we continuously learn from our experiences. It can define as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Classical conditioning: A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they dont want. Operant behaviour describes voluntary or learned behaviour in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behaviour. The tendency to repeat learned behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement that happens as a result of the behaviour. Social-learning theory: Individuals also can learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about something as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, much of what we have learned comes from watching others (models)—parents, teachers, peers, television and movie actors, managers, and so forth. This view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience is called social learning theory. Shaping behaviour theory: Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Usefulness of Learning Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Employees are going to learn on the job. The only issue is whether managers are going to manage their learning through the rewards they allocate and the examples they set or allow it to occur unsystematically. If marginal employees are rewarded with pay raises and promotions, they will have little reason to change their behaviour. In fact, productive employees, seeing that marginal performance gets rewarded, might change their behaviour. According to it managers can use learning theories and concepts to motivate employees to do thing as wanted. 3.4. Perception Decision Making Perception is a process by which individuals give meaning to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions. Attribution Theory: Attribution theory was developed to explain how we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individuals behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviours are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused behaviour results from outside factors; that is, the person is forced into the behaviour by the situation. That determination, however, depends on three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. Decision making is an integral function of management. Decision making involves selecting or choosing a particular course of action from among the various alternatives available in the decision making situation. Rational Decision-Making Model: A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximise some outcome. Step 1. Define the Problem Step 2. Identify the Decision Criteria Step 3. Weight the Criteria Step 4. Generate Alternatives Step 5. Rate Each Alternative on Each Criteria Step 6. Compute Optimal Decision Usefulness of Perception Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Managers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions, not to reality. So whether a managers appraisal of an employee is actually objective and unbiased or whether the organizations wage levels are among the highest in the community is less relevant than what employees perceive them to be. Employees organize and interpret what they see, so there is always the potential for perceptual distortion. The message to managers should be clear: Pay close attention to how employees perceive both their jobs and management actions. Since the valuable employee who quits because of an inaccurate perception is just as great a loss to an organization as the valuable employee who quits for a valid reason. In addition, job satisfaction also influences organizational behavior, primarily through perceptions of fairness. That means â€Å"If employees dont feel that their supervisors or the organizations procedures or pay policies are fair, their job satisfaction is likely to suffer significantly. However, when employees perceive organizational processes and outcomes to be fair, trust is developed. And when employees trust their employer, theyre more willing to voluntarily engage in behaviors that go beyond the formal job requirements†. Usefulness of Decision Making Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Studies show that managers may spend up to 70 percent of their time in group meetings. Undoubtedly, a large portion of that time is spent formulating problems, developing solutions, and determining how to implement the solutions.Therefore it proved knowing decision making theories and concepts is useful for as individually managers. It helps to make decisions in order to gain maximum productivity. 3.5. Motivation Motivation is the process that account for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. In todays world motivation is seen as being best achieved by a combination of elements within the organization that combine to produce it: needs; job design; satisfaction. There are many theories of motivation that have emerged in organizational behaviour literature. Early Theories of Motivation Hierarchy of needs theory: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a hierarchy. Maslows Hierarchy of needs (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009) Individuals cant move to the next higher level until all needs at the current level are satisfied. So they have to move up the hierarchy in order. Theory X Y: Very simply, Theory X presents an essentially negative view of people and Theory Y offers a positive view. Two-factor theory: motivation-hygiene theory proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. McClellands Theory of Needs: McClelland proposed that an individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones early life experiences. Theory focuses onpeople havingthree fundamental needs that exist in different degrees, one being a stronger preference:- The need for achievement The need for affiliation The need for power (authority) A persons motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs because they have different level of needs in each of these areas. (Edwards, 2009.) Goal setting Theory: Conscious goals affect action. A goal is the object or aim of an action. For example -: to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit. As industrial-organizational psychologists, our primary interest has been to predict, explain, and influence performance on organizational or work-related tasks. Thus, we focused on the relationship between conscious performance goals and level of task performance rather than on discrete intentions to take specific actions. Reinforcement Theory: In contrast to goal-setting theory, reinforcement theory says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Goal-setting theory proposes that an individuals purpose directs his or her behaviour. Reinforcement theory argues that behaviour is externally caused. What controls behaviour are reinforcers, consequences that, when given immediately following a behaviour, increase the probability that the behaviour will be repeated. The key to reinforcement theory is that it ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs. Instead, it focuses solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action. Expectancy Theory: Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables or relationships Equity Theory: This is a process theory that focuses on individuals perceptions of how fairly they are treated relative to others. The 4 most common ways to reduce a perceived inequity are to, Change inputs. Change outcomes. Distort perceptions. Leave the job. Usefulness of Motivation Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Managers can recognize individual differences by using above theories as almost every contemporary motivation theory recognizes that employees arent identical. They have different needs, attitudes, personality, and other important individual variables. Also managers can match people to jobs. Theres a great deal of evidence showing the motivational benefits of carefully matching people to jobs. For example, high achievers should have jobs that allow them to participate in setting moderately challenging goals and that involve autonomy and feedback. Also keep in mind that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in autonomy, variety, and responsibility. Employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcer for one may not for another. Managers should use their knowledge about theories and concepts of motivation to motivate employee using different reward systems. Ex-: Individualize the rewards they control, such as pay, promotions, recognition, desirable work assignments, autonomy, and participation. Link rewards to performance. Allocation of performance-based wage increases Piecework bonuses Pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation. So as mentioned above managers can induce employees to achieve organizational goals through knowledge of motivational theories and concepts 3.6. Leadership The aspect of leadership is perhaps one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. Leadership is a special case of interpersonal influence that gets an individual or group to do what the leader wants done (Wood, Wallance, Zeffane, Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2001). Trait Theories: Trait theories are more traditional and focus on the personal traits of leaders from those of followers. Six traits associated with effective leadership included; ambition and energy the desire to lead honesty and integrity self-confidence intelligence job relevant knowledge Traits alone were not sufficient for explaining effective leadership. Explanations based solely on traits ignored the interactions of leaders and their group members as well as situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. Behavioural Theories: Behavioral therapists take a different approach. Behavioralists try to determine the types of leadership behaviors that have produced a higher level of work performance. There are four main leader behaviour studies we need to look at. Managerial Grid Concern for people: measured leaders concern for subordinates on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Concern for production: measured leaders concern for getting job done on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Contingency Theory: In this section we examine five contingency theories. Each looks at defining leadership style and the situation and attempts to answer the if-then contingencies (i.e., if this is my situation, then this is the best leadership style for me to use) The Fiedler Model the Fiedler contingency model proposed that effective group performance depended on the proper match between the leaders style of interacting with his or her followers and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence. The model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. The key was to define those leadership styles and the different types of situations and then to identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation. Fiedler proposed that a key factor in leadership success was an individuals basic leadership style. He further suggested that a persons style was one of two types: task oriented or relationship oriented. To measure a leaders style, Fiedler developed the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire. This questionnaire contained 16 pairs of contrasting adjectives. After an individuals basic leadership style had been assessed through the LPC, it was necessary to evaluate the situation in order to match the leader with the situation. Fiedlers research uncovered three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors for determining leader effectiveness. These were: Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader; rated as either good or poor Task structure: the degree to which job assignments were formalized and procedurized; rated as either high or low Position power: the degree of influence a leader had over power-based activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases; rated as either strong or weak Each leadership situation was evaluated in terms of these three contingency variables. Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory focuses on followers readiness. SLT says if followers are; Telling (high task-low relationship): The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks. Selling (high task-high relationship): The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior. Participating (low task-high relationship): The leader and follower share in decision making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. Delegating (low task-low relationship): The leader provides little direction or support. Leader Participation Model related leadership behaviour and participation in decision making. The model argued that leader behaviour must adjust to reflect the task structure whether it was routine, nonroutine, or anywhere in between. Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model are; Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group. Consult Individually: Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Consult Group: Leader presents the probelm to group members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Facilitate: Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made. Delegate: Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits. Path-Goal Model which states that its the leaders job to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide the direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. House identified four leadership behaviors: Directive leader: lets subordinates know whats expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks Supportive leader: is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers Participative leader: consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decision Achievement-oriented leader: sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level Path goal theory Leader-Member Exchange Theory indicates that leaders develop special relationships with trusted followers. Usefulness of Leadership Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Leadership may not always be important but the aspect of leadership is conceivably one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. In perhaps more than any other area of organizational behavior the leadership aspect is a combination of learning theories, power, personality, performance appraisal and motivation. This is because leadership is the process whereby an individual must gain the voluntary participation of subordinates with the goal of attaining corporate objectives. Thus, a leaders personality and sense of power will influence this process. Further, motivation is a key aspect of leadership because goal will not be attained if subordinates are not properly motivated to achieve them and performance appraisal is a key element in this process. Without adequate feedback that is quantifiable, leaders will not be able to assess em ployee performance reliably or measure progress in attaining corporate objectives. So its important to have knowledge of leadership concepts and theories to both employees and managers to achieve organizational goals. 3.7. Groups A group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals. Groups can either be formal or informal. Formal groups are work groups established by the organization that have designated work assignments and specific tasks. In formal groups, appropriate behaviours are established by and directed toward organizational goals. Five stage Group Development Model Forming stage: The first stage in group development characterised by much uncertainty. Storming stage: The second stage in group development characterised by intra-group conflict. Norming stage: The third stage in group development, characterised by close relationships and cohesiveness. Performing stage: The fourth stage development, when the group is fully functional. Adjourning stage: The final stage in group development for temporary groups characterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. Group Behaviour Model Group behaviour emanates from the causes that contribute to the groups effectiveness. Usefulness of Group Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. The group task is a whole and meaningful piece of work, with a visible outcome. According to

Saint Bridit and African American Women Saints :: travel, saints, African Americans,

One of my class mates traveles to Ireland every year. My class mate stated each time she visits Ireland that she gets a greater understanding of women in the early days. We both come from a baptist, penecostal and apstolic background, I would like to compare the roles of Saint Bridit and women in the church, the only black women preachers preached about in the baptist church was harriet tuckman. The other women talked about in church was Mary the mother of Jesus Christ. However Mary the mother of Jesus did increase my faith, however I know it was much knowledge to be gained concerning women. My Classmate who traveled to Ireland last year was able to share with me about Saint Bridit, I was anxious to know about the great saints in Ireland. I was eagered to know about Saint Bridit because when I was born my mother named me Cassandra and back in Celtic tradition my name meant Prophetess and Godesss and Bridit was considered to be a Godess as well. While attending Ohio Dominican my instructor gave an lecture on Saint Bridit and women in the ancient Celtic Tradition, which drove me to write about Bridgit. I wanted to know who this women was who brought a powerful presence to Ireland, her name was so recognized that she was honored by man and women in highplaces. I was overwhelmed when I read an article on Saint Bridit, I felt so apart of this women. Back in my mothers day and in some churches today women are not honored let alone recognized for any five fold ministry gifts in the church. My class mate recently told me she did visit a well in Ireland that was named after saint Brigit. This was overwhelming to me because when we was growing up I did know of any wells named after any African American Women Saints. When we attended the Baptist Church coming up as children, women in the Baptist church ironed the Choir robes, raised money for Pastors Aide, Coordinate Mission trips, raised money for outreach, taught Sunday School and over the Nursey. Women was not recognized as Pastors, Bishops and Founders, We knew men was in charge in the church, I noticed only time women was recognized in the churrch is when they was raising money for church and Pastor.

Policing and Crime Reduction Essay

As the logic would imply, policing and crime rates have been thought to be related in certain ways. The public generally view that police powers depend on the quantitative aspect than on its qualitative characteristics. Comparably to the perspectives of far that perceives quantity reigns victor in the end, the public indeed view that the quality of security depends mainly on the number of police squad patrolling the area. There has been a lot of research that discusses the possible effects of quantity of police powers in reducing the crime rates. Various contributing factors have been considered in these studies in order to justify the rationale of this belief. However, the results still vary according to methodologies used, geographical area and socio-cultural atmosphere. In the course of our discussion, the primary topic shall center on this issue of increasing police officer count that induces reduction of crime rate. Analysis and interpretation of various data obtained through review of literature and records analysis shall be employed in order to validate the said claims. The following queries shall be answered throughout the discussion: a. What are the pros and cons of increasing the quantity of police officers for policing purposes? b. Identify various theories and concepts related to the subject of policing, particularly community policing, hotspot theory & deterrence theory. c. How are the conditions of San Diego, NYPD and Kansas City PD in terms of crime reductions way back in 1990s? d. Discuss and elaborate the study on foot patrol and New Jersey problem-oriented policing The discussion of the over-essay shall focus on the above queries; hence, these statements shall be the functional scopes of the entire study. The increase of police officers in the streets only leads to of the two consequent effects: either decrease of crime rates or even more increase of crime casualties. Essentially speaking, one reason patrol activity may be less effective than desired is the lack of adequate resources to facilitate the proper service. Does adding more police help bring down the crime rate? Discussion: Pros and Cons of Increased Policing In general view the evidences and the studies that pertains to this subject is mixed. According to some reviews, the number of law reinforcement officers in a jurisdiction seems to have probable little effect on area crimes. Comparisons of police expenditures in U.S. cities indicate that cities with the highest crime rates also spend the most on police services. While these results are disappointing, a number of recent studies, using various methodologies, have found that police presence may reduce crime levels and that adding police may bring crime levels down. In addition, increasing the size of the local police force may have other benefits for the overall effectiveness of the justice system (Siegel & Senna, p.182). Whether adding more officers to an already large police force causes crime to decrease; however, is somewhat less clear. Studies of the marginal effect of police and crime suffer from a number of difficulties. First, not only might additional police cause decline in crime, one might expect additional crime to result in the hiring of more police. This simultaneity effect makes it very complicated to sort out what causes what. The second problem is temporal order wherein cities with higher and lower levels of policing possesses indefinite data in terms of the addition of the police in cities with presently huge number of policing system, especially if the data gathered preceded or followed their current crime levels. Lastly, there is a great deal of measurement error in the counts of police officers and in the crime rates (Sherman, 2002 p.303). Pros of Increase Police Powers Evidence shows that cities with larger police departments, which have more officers per capita than the norm, also experience lower levels of violent crimes. Police departments that use a proactive, aggressive law enforcement style may help reduce crime rates. The methodologies of various local or federal policing firms greatly contribute the results of this reduction. As for this research that resulted in possible effects of quantitative policing, the proactive policing and aggressive policing are used, which may have affected the diminished results of violent crimes (Siegel & Senna, 2004 p.181). According to the recent studies, it is possible that the added police will make more arrests, which is another factor that helps lower the crime rate. Traditionally about 20% of all crimes reported to the police is cleared by arrest. Research indicates that if police could make an arrest in at least 30% of all reported crimes, the crime rate would decline significantly. If there were greater police resources, police departments would have the luxury of engaging in aggressive, focused crime fighting initiatives with the result being more arrests and a greater deterrent effect (Siegel, 2004 p.83-84). For example, UCR data show that index crimes are the ones most often cleared by arrest. Due to the visibility of homicide in the media and the importance police agencies place on homicides clearances, homicide detectives work aggressively to clear all homicides regardless of where they occur or the personal characteristics of homicide victims. It is possible that this aggressive approach to solving crime, spurred on by media attention to high-profile cases, has helped lower the homicide rate (Siegel, 2004 p.84). Public pressure for more police contributes to the formation of extremely necessary reforms. Collectively, these reforms provide more resources of labor for public security and focus public attention on real problems. They increase the capacity of the police to respond to crime in timely, fast, appropriate and accurate manner. Increasingly the numbers of police on the street or those deployed to specialized directed units can also have an impact on crime. In the case of open-air drug or gun markets, when police patrol a targeted area around the clock, there is an immediate deterrent effect (Wiatrowski & Pino, p.200). Cons of Increase Police Powers There is no definite evidence that suggests larger police forces reduce crime rates. There is also little evidence that a policy of adding more police will actually reduce crime. In 1968, the Crime Commission found that no direct correlation existed between the number of police per thousand citizens and the crime rate. It has been labeled as â€Å"doubtful† that any police agency can bring about an extend, significant decrease in crime rate (Marion, 1994 p.226). Moreover, it is unlikely that the bottom will fall out of public safety if we reduce the number of police, even quite substantially, and it is equally unlikely that crime will be reduced if we try to spend our way to safety by adding police officers. Changes in the number of police within any practicable range will have no effect on crime (Bayley, 1994 p.5). Summing up all the evidence, the authoritative Audit Commission in Britain wrote: The terms of public debate need to move off the assumption that more police officers and more police expenditures lead to a commensurate increase in the quantity and quality of police outputs (Bayley, 1994 p.5). The number of patrols in an area may be doubled, halved, or even removed altogether without changing crime levels. A review of 36 correlational studies, most of them weak in research design found little evidence that more police reduce crime rates. A recent review; however, of 27 studies of the effect of police numbers on violent crime came to similar conclusions. Criminologists have tried to address this question for over a quarter of a century, with no consistent and evident results (Sherman, 2002 p.303). On the contrary, other researches testify that increasing the police powers of certain areas may even increase the occurrence of crime since the number of arrest is also assumed to increase as this situation occurs. In addition, military or police control may overly occur in the area and may even induce anxiety over the civilians in the area. If the number of arrested individuals increases in an area, chances are the perception of security in the given place is also affected heavily; thus, criminal fear among the civilians is therefore increased (Skogan etal, p.224). According to the studies made, the increase of police powers is not even evident or justified to decrease the criminal rate; hence, such intervention possesses higher risk of possible ineffectiveness. Theories and Concepts Community Oriented Policing Problem solving and community partnership have become valued aspects of police service since the time of the reform era. True police professionalism must therefore incorporate the duty of servicing the community. Community policing can bridge the gap between police and citizens by uniting them in a common effort to prevent and control crime. Community policing is the collaboration between the police and the community that identifies and solves community problems. Ideally, such collaboration helps develop better relatio9nships and mutual understanding between police officers and community members, which in turn help in solving community problems (Glenn, 2003 p.93). It is not military-style policing with a central bureaucracy obedient to directive legislation, which minimizes discretion. It is not policing that is autonomous of policing consent and accountability. It is not policing that is committed primarily to reactive crime-fighting strategies or measured by output in terms of professional efficiency. Community policing is also essential because it is a key component of an export drive from the West in the development of new policing structures in transitional societies. In the United States, community oriented policing represents the dominant ideology of policing as reflected in a myriad of urban schemes, in funding practices, and in research publications (Brognen & Nijhar, 2005 p.1-2). Community policing works only if an area is flooded with police that would require hiring tremendous numbers of officers and huge amounts of spending for salaries other expenses. Critics also argue that community policing simply displaces crime to another area in which there are fewer police. However, community policing makes good political sense on a bipartisan basis and could help end the ideological battles over crime policies (Marion, 1994 p.226). Deterrence Theory Deterrence theorists portray humans as rational, pleasure-seeking, pain-avoiding creatures. This assumption leads to a relatively simple theory of crime: people will engage in criminal behavior when it brings them pleasure and carries little risk of pain. Deterrence theorists point out that punishment is most effective when it is swift, certain, and severe enough to outweigh the potential rewards of criminal behavior. The basis of deterrence theory-that formal punishment reduces criminal behavior-is very straightforward. Testing deterrence theory, however, is more complex. General deterrence is the proposition that increases in the certainty, severity, or swiftness of punishment produce decreases in criminal behavior for the population at large. The severity of punishment is relatively easy to measure. One could look, for example, at the average prison sentence for crimes in different jurisdictions. Studies on capital punishment, though, are by far the most common tests of this aspec t of deterrence theory (Vito etal, 2007 p.57). In some point of view, punishment based on deterrence or incapacitation is wrong because it involves an offender’s future actions, which cannot be accurately predicted. Punishment should be the same for all people who commit the same crime. Criminal sentences based on individual needs or characteristics are inherently unfair because all people are equally blameworthy of their misdeeds. Deterrence theory holds that if criminals are indeed rational, an inverse relationship should exist between punishment and crime. The certainty of punishment seems to deter crime. If people do not believe they will be caught, even harsh punishment may not deter crime. Deterrence theory has been criticized on the grounds that it wrongfully assumes that criminals make a rational choice before committing crimes, that it ignores the intricacies of the criminal justice system, and that it does not take into account the social and psychological factors that may influence criminality. The most evident disappointment for deterrence theory is the fact that the death penalty does not seem to reduce murders. There is little evidence that harsh punishment actually reduces the crime rate (Siegel, 2004 p.84). Hot Spot Theory Hot spot theory argues that predatory crime is associated with certain types of geographical areas, such that relatively few locations or hotspots are associated with a high percentage of crimes. Many of these hotspots exist in urban areas. Crimes against tourists are likely to cluster in these areas involving the concentration of tourism amenities and attractions, and therefore by implication, are likely to be higher in areas hosting special events. A transient population comprising local, domestic and international visitors increases the potential targets for crime and the individual anonymity for offenders. This is combined tendency for some tourists to decrease their safety consciousness on holiday, indulge in risk taking behavior and enter unfamiliar environment, which increases their exposure to criminal activity (Wilks & Page, 2003 p.198). Hot spot theory looks at locations, which provide convergent opportunities in which predatory crimes can possibly happen. These areas are described as crimogenic places where there are lots of bars, nightclubs and strip joints catering to tourists and providing ancillary services such as prostitution and drugs. Some of the crime these areas generate is of course victimless crime since tourists themselves often engage in deviant actions, such as drugs that have criminal consequences (Albuquerque & McElroy, n.d p.3).

6 Tips for a Thrifty Christmas

6 Tips for a Thrifty Christmas 6 Tips for a Thrifty Christmas If popular song is to be believed, Christmas is simultaneously the most wonderful time of the year and the season to be jolly (fa la la la la, la la la la). As such, you’ll probably be wanting to let loose and have a good time with friends and family. Doing this on a student budget isn’t easy though. One way to make sure you don’t get left out is doing a Grinch and stealing Christmas from everyone else. Before you start breaking and entering, however, it might be worth trying our tips for getting into the festive spirit without breaking the bank. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Make a Budget It’s easy to get carried away over Christmas, so it’s important to set a budget and stick to it, including for cards, gifts, ornaments and food. If this doesn’t sound suitably festive, you can always try it while wearing tinsel and drinking egg nog. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Start Shopping Early It might be a bit late for this year by the time you read this, but if you start your Christmas shopping early you can save a lot of money. One good option is to have a â€Å"Christmas Cupboard† for storing any festive bargains you spot during the year. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Get Crafty If money is really tight, making your own gifts, ornaments and cards is a great alternative to splashing the cash. Again, this might require a little planning, but a handmade gift or card can be a unique way of proving that it really is the thought that counts. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wrap Up Warm! Not strictly a Christmas-themed tip, but if you wrap up warm rather than blasting the central heating all day throughout the winter, you’ll save a fortune on your fuel bills! 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A Festive Feast (And Beyond) Yuletide wouldn’t be the same without eating so much you feel slightly unwell, but Christmas dinner can be expensive. Making your own treats will definitely help here, as it’s usually cheaper than buying them pre-made. Christmas dinner can even keep you fed beyond just Christmas day: using your leftovers cleverly is delicious and a good money saver. 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Memories, Not Materialism Despite all the bustling malls, shiny lights in shop windows and excitable commercials on TV, Christmas really should be about more than just money. Spending time with your friends and/or family costs nothing, providing memories that will last a lifetime (or far longer than it takes for your average Secret Santa present to be re-gifted at least).